Always Soluble |
Soluble with Exceptions |
(almost) Always Insoluble |
|
NH4+1,
Li+1, Na+1, K+1, Rb+1, Cs+1 NO3–1, CH3COO–1 |
Cl–1, Br–1, I–1 | SO4–2 |
F–1,
S–2, CO3–2, OH–1, PO4–3 |
exceptions: Ag+1, Pb+2, Hg2+2 |
exceptions: Sr+2, Ba+2, Pb+2, Hg2+2 |
Molecular | Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s) |
Complete Ionic | Cu(s) + 2Ag+ |
Net Ionic | Cu(s) + 2Ag+ → Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) |
m n·M P·M n P D = — = ——— = ———— (because ——— = ————) V V R·T V RT (M represents molar mass in g/mol, V is measured in liters, L)
P·M DRT D = ——— or M = ———— R·T P
A → B ΔH = +40 kJ so A → C ΔH = +40 + (+30) = +70 kJ C → B ΔH = –30 kJ because: A → B ΔH = +40 kJ B → C ΔH = +30 kJ ------------------- A +B→B+ C ΔH = +70 kJ
n | l | ml | Description |
1 | 0 | 0 | Shell 1, sub-shell 0, a single 1s orbital |
2 | 0 | 0 | Shell 2, sub-shell 0, a single 2s orbital |
2 | 1 | –1, 0, 1 | Shell 2, sub-shell 1, three 2p orbitals |
3 | 0 | 0 | Shell 3, sub-shell 0, a single 3s orbital |
3 | 1 | –1, 0, 1 | Shell 3, sub-shell 1, three 3p orbitals |
3 | 2 | –2, –1, 0, 1, 2 | Shell 3, sub-shell 1, five 3d orbitals |
General
Formula |
Shape | Illustration |
AB | Linear | |
AB2 | Linear | |
AB3 | Trigonal Planar | |
AB4 | Tetrahedral | |
AB5 | Trigonal Bipyramidal | |
AB6 | Octahedral |
Orbitals on
Central Atom |
Hybird Orbitals | Shape | Examples |
s, p | 2 sp hybrid orbitals | linear | CO2, N2 |
s, p, p | 3 sp2 hybrid orbitals | trigonal planar | BF3, SO2 |
s, p, p, p | 4 sp3 hybrid orbitals | tetrahedral | CH4, NH3, H2O |
s, p, p, p, d | 5 dsp3 hybrid orbitals | trigonal bipyramidal | PCl5, SF4, ClF3, XeF2 |
s, p, p, p, d, d | 6 d2sp3 hybrid orbitals | octahedral | SF6,BrF5, XeF4 |
1 Δ[A]
rate = – ———·—————
a Δt
|
1 Δ[B]
= – ———·—————
b Δt
|
1 Δ[C]
= + ———·—————
c Δt
|
1 Δ[D]
= + ———·—————
d Δt
|
Order | Units of k |
0 | M/s (or M s–1) |
1st | 1/s (or s–1) |
2nd | 1/M·s (or M–1 s–1) |
Order | Differential | Integrated |
0 | rate = k | [A]t = –kt + [A]0 |
1st | rate = k[A]1 | ln[A]t = –kt + ln[A]0 |
2nd | rate = k[A]2 | 1/[A]t = kt + 1/[A]0 |
Appearance of a Concentration vs. Time Graph | ||
Zero Order | First Order | Second Order |
slope = –k |
||
Modified Plots to Confirm Order of Reaction | ||
(no modified plot is needed to confirm whether a reaction is zero order) |
Plot the natural log of conc. vs. time
slope = -k |
Plot the inverse of conc. vs. time
slope = k |
Order | Half-life Expression |
0 | t½ = [A]0/2k |
1st | t½ = ln(2)/k |
2nd | t½ = 1/k[A]0 |
[C]c[D]d Kc = ————————— [A]a[B]b
(PC)c(PD)d Kp = ————————— (PA)a(PB)b
Disturbance | Result |
Reactant concentration is increased | Reaction shifts right |
Product concentration is increased | Reaction shift left |
Volume available to gas-phase reaction is reduced |
Reaction shifts to reduce total pressure
(no shift occurs if the number of moles of gas products equals the number of moles of gas reactans in the balanced equation) |
Volume available to gas-phase reaction is increased |
Reaction shifts to increase total pressure
(no shift occurs if the number of moles of gas products equals the number of moles of gas reactans in the balanced equation) |
An inert gas is added | Equilibrium concentrations do not change |
Increase temperature for an endothermic reaction | Reaction shifts right |
Decrease temperature for an endothermic reaction | Reaction shifts left |
Increase temperature for an exothermic reaction | Reaction shifts left |
Decrease temperature for an exothermic reaction | Reaction shifts right |
A catalyst is added | Equilibrium concentrations do not change |
Acid |
Conjugate
Base |
Base |
Conjugate
Acid |
|
HA | A– | A– | HA | |
HCl | Cl– | B | BH+ | |
HC2H3O2 | C2H3O2 – | OH– | H2O | |
H3O+ | H2O | NH3 | NH4+ |
Water undergoes autoionization: H2O + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + OH– |
Water as acid: H2O + B ⇌ OH– + BH+ |
Water as Base: HA + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + A– |
Stage | Description | How to calculate pH |
Start | Zero base added | Solve HA ⇌ H+ + A– using the initial concentration of HA and an initial concentration of zero for H+ and A–. |
Prior to Equivalence | Any amount of added base up to but not incl. the stoichiometric equivalence point |
|
At Equivalence | The stoichiometric equivalence point where moles of base added equals the original moles of HA |
Now that all of HA has been converted to A– the relevant equilibrium is no longer the dissociation of the acid. Rather, it is the reaction of the conjugate base with water: A– + H2O ⇌ HA + OH–.
|
After Equivalence | An amount of added base that exceeds the number of moles of HA originally in solution | Now that the amount of strong base added exceeds the original amount of the weak acid the pH is determined by the concentration of hydroxide ions. The conjugate base, A–, is a much weaker base and has no effect on the pH of the solution. Simply find the moles of excess OH–, divide by the total volume to find [OH–], calculate pOH, and pH = 14 - pOH. |
|
|
ΔGrxn = ΔH – TΔS | ||||
ΔH | ΔS | ΔG | Spontaneity | |
– | + | = | – | spontaneous at all temperatures |
– | – | + or – | spontaneous at low temperatures (so that |TΔS| < |ΔH|) | |
+ | + | + or – | spontaneous at high temperatures (so that |TΔS| > |ΔH|) | |
+ | – | + | not spontaneous at any temperature (spontaneous in reverse) |
ΔG° –RTln(K) RTln(K) E° = ———— = ————————— = ————————— –nF –nF nF
ΔG = ΔG° + RTln(Q) (from Ch. 19)
–nFE = –nFE° + RTln(Q)
RT E = E° – ——————·ln(Q) nF
Structure Communication Examples |
Resonance Examples |